Guiry, M.D. & Guiry, G.M. (2025). AlgaeBase. World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway (taxonomic information republished from AlgaeBase with permission of M.D. Guiry). Gymnodinium F.Stein, 1878. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at: https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=109475 on 2025-07-16
basis of recordGómez, F. (2005). A list of free-living dinoflagellate species in the world's oceans. <em>Acta Bot. Croat.</em> 64(1): 129-212.[details]
Other
additional sourceKofoid, C.A.; Swezy, O. (1921). The free-living unarmored Dinoflagellata. <em>Memoirs of the University of California.</em> 5: i-viii, 1-562., available online athttps://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/20306447[details]
additional sourceSteidinger, K.A.; Tangen, K. (1997). Dinoflagellates. pp. 387-584. In: C.R. Tomas (ed.) (1997). Identifying Marine Phytoplankton. Academic Press: San Diego, CA [etc.] (USA). ISBN 0-12-693018-X. XV, 858 pp., available online athttp://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780126930184500057[details]
additional sourceGuiry, M.D. & Guiry, G.M. (2025). AlgaeBase. <em>World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway.</em> searched on YYYY-MM-DD., available online athttp://www.algaebase.org[details]
additional sourceIntegrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS). , available online athttp://www.itis.gov[details]
additional sourceHayward, P. J.; Nelson-Smith, A.; Shields, C. (1996). Collins pocket guide: sea shore of Britain and Europe. <em>Collins pocket guides. Harper-Collins Publishers: London, UK. ISBN 0-00-219955-6.</em> 352 pp. (look up in IMIS) [details]
additional sourceParker, S.P. (Ed.) (1982). Synopsis and classification of living organisms. McGraw Hill Book Company: New York, NY (USA). ISBN 0-07-079031-0. 1166, 1232 pp. (look up in IMIS) [details]
Present Inaccurate Introduced: alien Containing type locality
Classification This genus was originally placed under the family Gymnodiniidae as proposed by Hayward and Ryland (1990). [details] Diet general for group: both heterotrophic (eat other organisms) and autotrophic (photosynthetic) [details] Ecology Blooms of this genus were recorded as early as 1937 in the Oslo Fjord (Braarud, 1945) an have occured more recently as G. sanguinum with concentrations up to 35 106 ind/l. [details] Habitat pelagic [details] Importance General: known for producing dangerous toxins, particularly when in large numbers, called "red tides" because the cells are so abundant they make water change color. Also they can produce non-fatal or fatal amounts of toxins in predators (particularly shellfish) that may be eaten by humans. [details] Predators marine microorganisms and animal larvae [details] Reproduction general for group: both sexual and asexual [details]